Power Timeline

Lebanon, under late Ottoman rule, saw the establishment of its first official electricity entity, created and owned by the Ottomans. This entity operated the country's first thermal power plant, which supplied electricity to Beirut's tramway system, streetlights, and select businesses and individuals.5 Syria preceded Lebanon, by being the first country under Ottoman rule to have its grid installed in 1907.6 The Ottoman rule continued until the onset of WWl in 1915.

Facing financial and political pressures, the Ottoman Empire sold the Lebanese electricity entity to the Belgian financer G Haardt. owned company. This was for two main reasons: the Ottomans lacked the expertise and technical know-how to develop a power grid, and Belgium, with no history of territorial ambitions in Ottoman lands, was seen as a safe and neutral partner.®

The first documented mobilization occurred in response to escalating electricity bills, poor service, and inadequate working conditions.® This marked a pivotal moment of collective action against the lack of access to energy, setting the stage for many more movements to follow.

Sold to the French: This was the start of the French Mandate over Lebanon and Syria. The ownership structure of electricity provision was transferred to the French and later became known as "Électricité de Beyrouth" 10 Although this was the largest electricity provider in Lebanon, it was not the only one.

Mobilization / Protest Against Foreign Ownership: Unlike previous protests, this mobilization included explicit political demands for independence and the withdrawal of French troops.

Independence from the French: Lebanon gained independence from the French mandate. Slowly but surely, the state started to gain ownership of its public utilities.

Mobilization: A year-long protest against rising electricity costs that had significant consequences on Lebanon’s energy sector. In response to increasing demands, inadequate supply, and a decrease in prices following the lmobilization, the first electricity rationing program was implemented. Previously, electricity cuts were unannounced and irregular. The electricity company also announced that Khalde Boulevard, leading to Beirut’s airport, would be shut off during peak hours to conserve energy. It established time slots for irrigation and introduced an intermittent schedule of rotating three-hour intervals. This would set a precedent and a framework for how Lebanon’s energy sector would continue to operate in the future.

Lebanon Gains Ownership for the First Time: Lebanon officially gained full control over its energy sector, marking the beginning of state control over public utilities.

Development in Postcolonial Lebanon - The Litani Project: Water was regarded as one of Lebanon’s most valuable resources. Unlike its oil-rich neighbors, Lebanon’s Mediterranean mountain landscape meant it lacked underground resources. Many saw that hydroelectricity was the way to propel Lebanon onto the modernization wagon and the key to its economic determination. The Litani River, the longest river entirely within Lebanon, became the centerpiece of the country’s largest hydroelectric and irrigation project. In 1955, the government secured a $40 million loan from the World Bank to fund the initial stages of the project. However, the scheme was never fully completed. By the 1960s, the project had massively exceeded its budget and timeline. The government officials foreseeing it faced lawsuits of corruption and mismanagement. The construction of dams and tunnels severely disrupted the biodiversity of the basin. Instead of providing electricity and irrigation to marginalized communities, the project cut off these resources from the very communities—primarily Shi’a Muslims—who depended on them most. In response, these communities began to mobilize, identifying as ‘environmentalists’ in the Western sense of the term. Their movement centered on environmental justice, equitable resource distribution, and collective sovereignty over a landscape with a deep emotional and cultural connection. It’s important to note two things here: First, The U.S. government had clear strategic motives for supporting the Litani project. It sought to strengthen its influence in Lebanon as an anti-communist ally in the Middle East. This marked the U.S.’s rise as a hegemonic power in the region, gradually replacing Britain and France. Second, Israel since its conception, had an interest in the Litani River, and access to it was a concern during the country’s formative years. Policymakers saw the river, whose entire basin is in Lebanon, as a promising solution to Israel’s water crisis.

Electricité du Liban (EDL): Electricité du Liban (EDL) was created and was granted a state monopoly over the production, transportation, and distribution of electricity in Lebanon.

The Civil War: The Lebanese Civil War, lasting 15 years, gave rise to new forms of informal energy infrastructures. As supply from the official grid became increasingly unreliable, citizens adapted through alternative strategies, including diesel-powered generators—illegally run and managed through neighborhood subscription services. These informal electricity providers sold limited electricity for a monthly fee. Given the constant shortfalls of EDL, the public has largely had to accept generators as a necessary evil, with their legality rarely questioned. Informal electricity providers, often backed by political figures, have held a significant degree of power within local communities. Relationships with these energy providers extend beyond transactions, often transforming into friendships and neighborly bonds. These subscription networks are built on social ties and ‘collective intimacies’ that are constantly being reinforced by the failure of the state. They perpetuate a power structure and invisible hierarchies that give way to a state within a state. It’s also important to note that these subscriptions were not the only informal network used, people also reverted to charging batteries and operating personal private generators if they managed to secure fuel.

Israeli Occupation: A three-month war aimed to militarily and politically weaken the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) in southern Lebanon and turn the Lebanese Civil War in Israel’s favor. During this time, Israeli army electricians tampered with Beirut’s power lines, severing cables to the Hazmieh power station. They later entered the Karantina station and ordered power to be cut off of West Beirut. By then, Israeli forces had detailed maps of Beirut’s power grid.20 When asked about the situation, Colonel Paul Kedar of the Israeli Army press liaison bureau said, “Look, they are not starving yet. They are not thirsty yet… Whatever is being done is to get the PLO out of Beirut.

Unprofitable for life: In 1994, a political decision fixed electricity tariffs and the price per barrel despite rising costs, creating a highly subsidized and unprofitable revenue model. This policy has led to decades of significant budget losses and dubbed the energy sector unprofitable for life.

Israeli Invasion - Operation Grapes of Wrath: By then Lebanese people started having hope that Beirut was finally rising from the ashes of the civil war only to be hit with another Israeli invasion displacing 400,000 people. This time hitting two power stations which rendered the country back into darkness.

Israeli Invasion - The July war: In July 2006, Israel launched a 34-day war against Lebanon. Beyond the destruction of 92 bridges, 900 commercial enterprises, 66 government buildings, 350 schools, 2 hospitals, and 50 healthcare centers, Israel also targeted critical energy infrastructure, destroying 15 power stations and one dam.25 One of the most destructive attacks was on the Jiyyeh Power Plant, which spilled 15,000 tons of heavy fuel into the Mediterranean Sea. This disaster resulted in the largest oil spill in Lebanese history and one of the most severe environmental disasters to impact the Mediterranean, contaminating 100 km of the Lebanese coastline and at least 22 coastal areas. In addition to the environmental toll, the spill worsened the country’s fuel shortages, adding strain to an already fragile energy supply.

Syrian Civil War The war in Syria has had a profound impact on Lebanon, with an estimated 1.5 million displaced Syrians crossing the border since the conflict began in 2011. Since then, the Syrian displaced population has grown by 30%, making Lebanon the country with the highest concentration of refugees per capita in the world. On the one hand, surveys by the Lebanese Ministry of Energy and Water and the UNDP on the impact of the Syrian crisis on Lebanon’s energy sector indicate a rise in energy consumption of approximately 480 megawatts— nearly equivalent to Lebanon’s current energy deficit. On the other hand, it’s estimated that up to one billion liters of fuel have been smuggled into Syria annually, meaning more than 2 million liters cross the border daily from Lebanon—a country already facing severe fuel shortages. However, despite multiple narratives blaming the current energy crisis on the influx of Syrians, it would be an oversimplification to attribute the crisis solely to this factor. Lebanon’s energy problems have existed since the creation of its energy sector and have been shaped by long-standing issues of mismanagement, inefficiency, and state failure. While the large influx of refugees does place additional strain on resources and public utilities, it is not the sole cause of the ongoing energy crisis.

Little Big Wins Zahle, a city in Lebanon, leveraged a policy loophole and community effort to take full control of its energy grid, creating a microgrid fully independent from the state. This autonomy allowed Zahle to provide 24/7 electricity— becoming the only city in Lebanon to have uninterrupted access to power—while also supplying power to 15 neighboring municipalities; a rare success story. long- standing issues of mismanagement, inefficiency, and state failure. While the large influx of refugees does place additional strain on resources and public utilities, it is not the sole cause of the ongoing energy crisis.

The Collapse: Lebanon’s currency collapsed, losing more than 90% of its value and propelling around 80% of the population into poverty. As a result, EDL was forced to drastically cut production because it could no longer afford fuel, leaving the country with only 2 to 3 hours of electricity per day. Meanwhile, generator subscriptions, priced at the dollar black market rate, became more expensive and inaccessible than ever.

Beirut Port Explosion: Considered one of the biggest non-nuclear explosions to have been recorded, it shook Lebanon and severely damaged its infrastructure. Sounds from the explosion could be heard all the way to Cyprus. Unfortunately, EDL headquarters was located near the port and was destroyed along with the national grid it housed.

Crumbling and Surviving: In response to the scarcity and high costs of electricity, there was a significant surge in alternative energy solutions, particularly solar panels, capitalizing on Lebanon’s 300 sunny days per year. This surge in solar adoption has transformed rooftops across cities into energy-generating sites, allowing households to utilize renewable energy while reducing their dependence on the unstable state grid. The move toward solar energy has not only addressed immediate energy needs but has also fostered a sense of agency within communities. This surge was historical and would continue to reshape Lebanon’s energy landscape.

Israeli War: Israeli invasion of Lebanon, this time aimed at dismantling Hezbollah’s influence. The war resulted in widespread destruction and displacement. By now, people have largely adapted to energy scarcity. Most have installed private solar panels independent of the state, along with additional solutions like uninterruptible power supplies (UPS), batteries, and subscriptions to neighborhood diesel generators for emergencies. They treat the limited energy supplied by the state as a bonus. During an interview at the start of the Israeli invasion in October 2024, Minister of Power Walid Fayyad was asked if the government had a plan B in case Israel strikes power plants, to which he responded, “We don’t even have a Plan A.” Sixty years later, the government still fails to prepare for a crisis. However, this time the situation is different because the people are prepared. Decentralization builds resilience; it’s harder to plunge a population into darkness when every household is an energy-producing household